Hidradenitis Suppurativa Laser Treatment: Hurley-Stage Guide

Hidradenitis suppurativa (HS), also known as acne inversa, is a chronic, painful, inflammatory skin condition characterized by recurrent, deep-seated nodules, abscesses, draining sinus tracts, and progressive scarring. HS typically affects intertriginous areas—regions where skin rubs together—such as the axillae, groin, perineum, buttocks, and inframammary folds. The prevalence of HS is estimated between 1% and 4% globally, disproportionately affecting young adults, females, and individuals of African descent. Managing HS is historically difficult, often requiring a combination of medical therapies, lifestyle interventions, and surgical procedures.

In recent years, energy-based devices—specifically long-pulsed 1064-nm Nd:YAG lasers, carbon dioxide (CO2) lasers, intense pulsed light (IPL), and photodynamic therapy (PDT)—have emerged as critical modalities in the management of HS. However, patient selection, modality matching, and clinical outcomes depend heavily on the patient's disease severity, classified by Hurley stages.

This guide provides an evidence-first, stage-based decision framework for laser and light-based treatments in hidradenitis suppurativa. We analyze the scientific evidence behind each modality, compare energy-based therapies with biologics and traditional surgery, outline safety protocols for skin of color, and address common questions regarding recurrence, healing times, and costs.

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What does each HS laser actually do (CO2 vs Nd:YAG vs IPL vs PDT)?

Energy-based treatments for hidradenitis suppurativa are not uniform; they operate via fundamentally different physical mechanisms and target different components of HS pathology. Understanding the biophysical interactions of each wavelength is necessary for matching the device to the patient's clinical presentation.

                  ENERGY-BASED MODALITIES FOR HS
  ┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
  │                                                             │
  ▼                                                             ▼
Non-Ablative (Follicle & Inflammation)            Ablative (Surgical Excision/Deroofing)
  - 1064-nm Nd:YAG                                  - Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Laser (10,600 nm)
  - IPL / LAight (Broadband light)                  - Erbium:YAG Laser (2,940 nm)
  - PDT (Photodynamic Therapy)

1. Long-Pulsed 1064-nm Nd:YAG Laser

The long-pulsed 1064-nm neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet (Nd:YAG) laser is a non-ablative device that targets melanin in the hair follicle and hemoglobin in the microvasculature. In the context of HS, the Nd:YAG laser serves three therapeutic functions:

• Follicular Ablation: HS is initiated by follicular occlusion. By destroying the hair follicle within the affected area (adnexal destruction), the Nd:YAG laser removes the primary anatomical site of disease onset and ruptures.
• Anti-inflammatory Effects: The 1064-nm wavelength penetrates deeply into the dermis (up to 4–6 mm), where it is absorbed by blood vessels, causing microvascular photothermolysis. This reduces the inflammatory cytokine cascade and decreases local vascularity, which in turn reduces flare frequency and pain.
• Deep Tissue Penetration: Because the 1064-nm wavelength is weakly absorbed by epidermal melanin relative to shorter wavelengths (like 755-nm or 810-nm), it can be used safely in patients with darker skin types (Fitzpatrick IV–VI), who are statistically over-represented in the HS patient population.

Under the FDA device classification, these long-pulsed Nd:YAG systems fall under product codes such as OIL and OEM (Class II surgical lasers).

2. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Laser (10,600 nm)

The carbon dioxide (CO2) laser is an ablative device targeting water as its primary chromophore. At 10,600 nm, the energy is completely absorbed by intracellular and extracellular water, leading to rapid vaporization of target tissue with minimal peripheral thermal damage when used in pulsed or superpulsed modes. In HS, the CO2 laser is used as a surgical tool for:

• Laser Deroofing: Vaporizing the "roof" of epithelialized sinus tracts (tunnels), exposing the tract floor, and allowing the wound to heal by secondary intention.
• Wide Local Excision: Surgically excise entire diseased inflammatory blocks, including active sinus tracts, scars, and adjacent apocrine-bearing tissue.
• Hemostasis: The CO2 laser photocoagulates small blood vessels (up to 0.5 mm) during excision, providing a bloodless surgical field that improves visualization and precision, allowing the surgeon to conserve healthy surrounding tissue.

CO2 lasers fall under FDA device classification product codes such as GFL (Class II carbon dioxide surgical lasers).

3. Intense Pulsed Light (IPL) / LAight Therapy

Intense Pulsed Light (IPL) uses non-coherent, broadband light (typically 500–1200 nm) with cut-off filters to target multiple chromophores, including melanin, hemoglobin, and Cutibacterium acnes porphyrins.

• LAight® Therapy: A specialized device combining IPL with radiofrequency (RF) designed specifically for acne inversa / HS. It uses moderate energy levels to reduce local inflammation, decrease bacterial colonization, and promote tissue remodeling in early-stage lesions. It is non-invasive and does not cause follicular ablation to the same degree as Nd:YAG.
• Microvascular Reduction: Similar to Nd:YAG, the hemoglobin-targeting filters reduce the vascular density of active lesions, mitigating redness and throbbing pain.

4. Photodynamic Therapy (PDT)

Photodynamic therapy involves the application of a topical photosensitizer—typically 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) or methyl aminolevulinate (MAL)—which accumulates selectively in rapidly proliferating cells, sebaceous glands, and hair follicles. Upon activation by a specific wavelength of light (typically blue light at 417 nm or red light at 630 nm), the photosensitizer generates singlet oxygen and reactive oxygen species (ROS), causing selective destruction of the target structures.

• Targeted Immunomodulation: PDT destroys follicular structures and reduces local microbial burden.
• Methylene Blue Niosomal Gel: Emerging research has evaluated alternative photosensitizers, such as methylene blue encapsulated in niosomal gels, activated by red light, showing improved tolerability and lesion reduction in comparative studies.

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How do I match the laser to my Hurley stage (I, II, III)?

The clinical utility of energy-based devices in HS is highly stage-dependent. Utilizing a non-ablative laser on advanced fibrotic tunnels is ineffective, while performing wide surgical excisions on mild, non-scarred nodules represents over-treatment.

                                HURLEY STAGING & DEVICE FIT
  
    Hurley Stage I                 Hurley Stage II                Hurley Stage III
   (Single Abscesses)            (Recurrent Abscesses)           (Diffuse Involvement)
  ┌──────────────────┐           ┌──────────────────┐           ┌──────────────────┐
  │ - Nd:YAG 1064nm  │           │ - Nd:YAG (Flares)│           │ - CO2 Excision   │
  │ - IPL / LAight   │           │ - CO2 Deroofing  │           │   (Wide surgical)│
  │ - PDT (Adjunct)  │           │ - PDT (Selected) │           │                  │
  └──────────────────┘           └──────────────────┘           └──────────────────┘

The table below outlines the clinical indications, device matches, and expected outcomes based on the Hurley staging system:

Staging-Based Treatment Selection Logic

For Hurley Stage I

The focus is on prevention of disease progression and reduction of flare frequency. Long-pulsed Nd:YAG laser treatments should be administered monthly for 3 to 4 sessions, covering the entire anatomical region (e.g., the entire axilla or bilateral inguinal folds), not just active lesions. By targeting the hair follicles, the treatment converts apocrine-bearing skin into hair-free, fibrotic-resistant skin, minimizing follicular rupture.

For Hurley Stage II

The disease has progressed to form permanent anatomical tracts (sinus tracts). These tracts are lined with epithelium and harbor biofilm, inflammatory debris, and hair fragments; they cannot be resolved by non-ablative lasers or medical therapy alone.

Here, CO2 laser deroofing is indicated. The laser vaporizes the roof of the tunnel. The tract floor is then curetted to remove epithelial debris and coagulated by the laser. The wound is left open to heal by secondary intention, which triggers a robust granulation response. Nd:YAG laser can be used concurrently in the surrounding, non-tunneled areas to prevent new follicular lesions.

For Hurley Stage III

The disease involves entire anatomical regions characterized by dense, fibrotic scarring and continuous suppuration. Non-surgical modalities are purely palliative. The gold standard is wide local excision using the CO2 laser. The surgical margins must extend 1–2 cm beyond the palpable border of induration to ensure all microscopic sinus tracts and diseased follicular units are removed. The excision depth typically reaches the deep fascia or suprafascial fat plane.

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Recurrence, healing time, and scarring: what the studies show

When counseling patients on laser interventions, clear clinical parameters regarding recurrence, wound healing, and patient satisfaction must be established from the peer-reviewed literature.

                           OUTCOME EXPECTATIONS BY MODALITY
  
  ┌──────────────────────┬───────────────────────────┬─────────────────────────────┐
  │ Modality             │ Local Recurrence Rate     │ Primary Healing Timeline    │
  ├──────────────────────┼───────────────────────────┼─────────────────────────────┤
  │ Nd:YAG (Stage I-II)  │ ~30-45% within 12 months  │ Minimal (0-2 days erythema) │
  │ CO2 Deroofing (II)   │ < 10% at treated site     │ 4 to 8 weeks (open wound)   │
  │ CO2 Excision (III)   │ < 5% at treated site      │ 8 to 12 weeks (open wound)  │
  └──────────────────────┴───────────────────────────┴─────────────────────────────┘

1. Recurrence Rates

• Non-Ablative (Nd:YAG): Recurrence is common because the disease is systemic and chronic. In a landmark right-left randomized controlled trial (Tierney et al., 2009), 20 patients received Nd:YAG treatment to one side of the body (axilla or groin) monthly for 3 months, with the contralateral side serving as control. Treated sides showed a statistically significant improvement (65.3% reduction in severity scores) compared to control sides (7.5%). However, long-term follow-up shows that flares can recur within 6 to 12 months after treatment cessation if maintenance sessions are not performed.
• Ablative (CO2 Laser Deroofing & Excision): Local recurrence rates are low. A 2025 systematic assessment (Gawroński et al., PMC12609277) consolidated the available evidence on laser therapy for HS and confirmed that CO2 laser surgery (excision and deroofing) provides durable control, with local recurrence at the treated site typically reported in the low single digits to low teens across series. A 2024 review by Clark et al. (PMC10966630) compared surgical deroofing and CO2 laser treatment in 1,120 patients and found that, beyond 12 months, CO2 laser treatment exhibited slightly higher recurrence-free rates than surgical deroofing — though the authors note the sample size limits firm conclusions.
• Combined Therapy: Azim et al. (2018) conducted a right-left randomized study (n=20) comparing long-pulsed 1064-nm Nd:YAG alone versus combined fractional CO2 and Nd:YAG. The combined treatment side achieved higher clinical improvement (P=0.011) and higher patient satisfaction (P=0.048). Crucially, the combined side showed no recurrence in 55% of patients compared to only 35% on the Nd:YAG-only side at the end of the follow-up period.

2. Healing Times

• Nd:YAG and IPL: Non-ablative treatments require zero downtime. Patients experience mild erythema and transient edema lasting 12 to 48 hours.
• CO2 Laser Deroofing: The resulting open wounds heal by secondary intention. Because the laser seals lymphatic vessels and capillaries during ablation, post-operative pain and drainage are minimal compared to cold-scalpel surgery. Healing by secondary intention typically takes 4 to 8 weeks, depending on the wound surface area.
• CO2 Laser Excision: Wide local excisions result in large, deep defects. Secondary intention healing is the preferred closure method to avoid the high infection and flap-failure rates associated with primary closure in colonized HS areas. Complete re-epithelialization of wide axillary or inguinal excisions takes 8 to 12 weeks.

3. Patient-Reported Satisfaction

• Mikkelsen et al. (2015) evaluated long-term patient satisfaction after CO2 laser vaporization of HS lesions. Patients reported high overall satisfaction, with a significant reduction in pain, odor, and discharge.
• Wound care after CO2 laser deroofing or excision requires daily cleaning (normal saline), application of an ointment barrier (petroleum jelly), and non-adherent dressings. The use of advanced silicone dressings or silver-impregnated foam dressings can accelerate re-epithelialization.

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Laser vs biologic (Cosentyx/Humira) vs surgery - when is each right?

Choosing between energy-based devices, medical therapies (such as biologics), and traditional surgery requires understanding their clinical roles. These modalities are not mutually exclusive; they should be sequenced to optimize outcomes.

                           HS TREATMENT MODALITIES COMPARISON
  
  ┌───────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
  │                                                                               │
  ▼                                      ▼                                        ▼
Medical (Systemic Control)     Energy-Based (Local/Targeted)     Traditional Surgery (Wide)
  - Humira (anti-TNF)            - Nd:YAG (hair/inflam)            - Scalpel Deroofing
  - Cosentyx (anti-IL-17A)       - CO2 Deroofing (tunnels)         - Wide Local Excision
  - Antibiotics                  - PDT (adjunct)                   - Skin Grafting / Flaps

1. Biologics (Systemic Immunomodulation)

Biologics, such as adalimumab (Humira, anti-TNF) and secukinumab (Cosentyx, anti-IL-17A), target the systemic inflammatory pathways driving HS.

• When they are right: Indicated for moderate-to-severe HS (Hurley Stage II and III) with diffuse active lesions, high inflammatory load, and systemic symptoms.
• Limits: Biologics reduce inflammation and the rate of new abscess formation, but they cannot dissolve existing, epithelialize fibrous sinus tracts or dense scars. If a patient has multiple fixed tunnels (Hurley II), biologic therapy will fail to stop drainage because the structural defect remains.
• Combination Protocol: The optimal clinical sequence is to initiate systemic biologic therapy to cool down diffuse active inflammation, followed by targeted CO2 laser deroofing or excision of the remaining fixed anatomical tunnels.

2. Traditional Cold-Scalpel Surgery (Wide Local Excision / Skin Grafting)

Traditional surgical methods utilize scalpel excision followed by primary closure, split-thickness skin grafts (STSG), or local tissue flaps.

• When they are right: Large-volume tissue resection where reconstruction is immediately planned, or in centers lacking specialized laser equipment.
• Comparison with CO2 Laser: Scalpel excision lacks the intraoperative hemostasis provided by the CO2 laser, resulting in higher blood loss and longer operative times. Furthermore, primary closure of scalpel wounds carries a high recurrence rate (up to 40-50% in some series) due to tension and the retention of microscopic sinus tracts at the margins. CO2 wide excision left to heal by secondary intention exhibits recurrence rates of <5%.

3. Laser and Light-Based Therapy

• When they are right: For Hurley Stage I patients to prevent progression; for Hurley Stage II patients to target and eliminate individual tunnels without the morbidity of wide surgical resections; and for patients who are poor candidates for systemic immunosuppression (e.g., history of active tuberculosis, demyelinating disease, or severe congestive heart failure).

The table below contrasts the profiles of these major treatment paradigms:

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Is HS laser treatment safe for skin of color (Fitzpatrick IV-VI)?

Hidradenitis suppurativa is highly prevalent in populations with darker skin tones (Fitzpatrick skin phototypes IV, V, and VI). In these patients, the epidermal concentration of melanin is high. Because melanin acts as a competitive chromophore for many laser wavelengths, performing laser treatments in skin of color introduces significant risks of post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation (PIH), hypopigmentation, blistering, and keloidal scarring.

However, HS laser treatment is safe and effective in skin of color if specific biophysical principles and clinical parameters are followed.

1. Wavelength Selection: The Supremacy of 1064-nm Nd:YAG

Shorter wavelengths (such as the 755-nm Alexandrite or 810-nm Diode) are highly absorbed by melanin. When fired at dark skin, the epidermal melanin absorbs the laser energy, causing thermal burns, blistering, and subsequent permanent pigment loss.

The 1064-nm Nd:YAG laser is the gold standard for skin of color. The longer wavelength has a lower affinity for melanin, allowing the energy to bypass the epidermis and penetrate deep into the dermis to target the hair follicle root and deep vascular structures.

2. Laser Settings for Fitzpatrick IV-VI Patients

When treating HS with Nd:YAG in darker skin, clinical parameters must be adjusted to protect the epidermis:

• Extended Pulse Durations: Increase pulse duration to 30–50 milliseconds (ms). This allows the heat to dissipate slowly from the epidermal melanin while still heating the larger hair follicle structures.
• Conservative Fluence: Fluence should be restricted to 30–40 J/cm², depending on the spot size (typically 10–12 mm).
• Aggressive Cooling: Use dynamic cooling devices (DCD) or contact cooling sapphire tips. Epidermal cooling must be applied pre-, parallel to, and post-laser pulse to keep the skin surface temperature below the thermal injury threshold.
• Multiple Passes vs. Single Pass: Avoid multiple overlapping passes over the same inflammatory nodule within a single session to prevent cumulative heat build-up.

3. Preventing Keloid Formation and PIH

Keloid and hypertrophic scarring are a general concern whenever skin of color undergoes destructive or ablative procedures. The HS-specific evidence, however, is more reassuring than many patients assume: in a retrospective review of 129 HS patients treated with CO2 laser excision, Ezekwe et al. (2023, JAAD) found no cases of keloid formation. That finding does not erase keloid risk for an individual with a strong personal or family history of keloids, but it suggests that CO2 excision, in experienced hands and with the conservative settings below, does not routinely trigger keloids in the HS population.

To mitigate residual risk in predisposed patients:

• Pre-treatment Pigment Suppression: Patients with Fitzpatrick IV–VI should be pre-treated with topical hydroquinone 4% for 2 to 4 weeks prior to non-ablative laser sessions to downregulate melanocyte activity.
• Early Intervention for Scarring: If hypertrophic scarring or keloidal borders begin to form at a CO2 laser excision margin, intralesional triamcinolone acetonide (10–40 mg/mL) injections should be initiated immediately.
• Sun Protection: Daily broad-spectrum SPF 50 sunscreen is mandatory post-treatment. Even in covered intertriginous areas, friction-induced hyperpigmentation can be exacerbated by laser-induced inflammation.

For more detailed information on managing pigmentary risks, see our guide on acne scar treatments in skin of color and our comprehensive review of lasers for darker skin types.

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What it costs, how many sessions, and how to find a qualified center

1. Treatment Costs and Insurance Coverage

• Non-Ablative Lasers (Nd:YAG): Because laser hair reduction is historically classified as a cosmetic procedure, insurance payers frequently deny coverage for Nd:YAG treatments, even when medically indicated for HS. A single session covering bilateral axillae or groin folds typically costs $300 to $600. A full course of 4 to 6 sessions can run between $1,800 and $3,600. Some academic dermatology departments have successfully obtained prior authorizations by using medical codes for laser destruction of inflammatory lesions (e.g., CPT 17110), but patients must prepare for out-of-pocket costs.
• Ablative Surgery (CO2 Laser Deroofing / Excision): CO2 laser excision and deroofing are classified as surgical procedures for a medical disease. They are generally covered by health insurance, subject to deductibles and co-insurance. When billed medically, the surgeon uses CPT codes for incision and drainage of abscesses (CPT 10060/10061), debridement, or wide local excision (CPT 11450–11471, excision of skin and subcutaneous tissue for hidradenitis). Out-of-pocket facility and surgeon fees for uninsured patients can range from $2,500 to $7,500 depending on the extent of the surgery.

2. Session Count and Timeline

• Nd:YAG protocol: 4 to 6 initial sessions spaced 4 weeks apart. Maintenance sessions are typically required every 6 to 12 months.
• CO2 Laser Deroofing: A single procedure per tract. Multiple tracts can be deroofed in one session under local tumescent anesthesia.
• CO2 Laser Excision: A single, definitive surgical session per anatomical zone. If bilateral disease is present (e.g., both axillae), surgeons often stage the procedures 6 to 12 weeks apart to allow the patient to maintain mobility and perform wound care on one side before undergoing the contralateral surgery.

3. Vetting a Treatment Center

Given the complexity of HS and the safety parameters required for laser interventions, patients must vet clinical centers using the following checklist:

• Board Certification: The treating provider should be a board-certified dermatologist, plastic surgeon, or general surgeon with documented experience in HS management.
• Skin of Color Competence: Ask specifically: "What pulse duration and wavelength do you use for Fitzpatrick V/VI skin?" The correct answer for non-ablative laser must be Nd:YAG 1064-nm with pulse widths extended to 30ms or higher.
• Tumescent Anesthesia Protocol: For CO2 deroofing or excision, confirm the center uses local tumescent anesthesia (large volumes of dilute lidocaine and epinephrine) rather than requiring general anesthesia for moderate-sized excisions. This reduces patient risk and recovery time.
• Integrated Wound Care Support: The center must have dedicated wound-care nursing staff to guide the patient through the 4-to-12-week secondary intention healing process.

To further understand how to select a clinical team for advanced procedures, refer to our detailed article on choosing a board-certified provider.

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FAQs

Can laser cure hidradenitis suppurativa?

No. There is currently no cure for hidradenitis suppurativa. HS is a chronic, systemic inflammatory disease. CO2 laser excision or deroofing can permanently eradicate specific, localized disease structures (sinus tracts and scarred tissue) at the treated site, resulting in a low local recurrence rate (<10%). However, these procedures do not prevent new lesions from developing in adjacent, untreated skin or other anatomical zones. Nd:YAG lasers reduce the frequency and severity of flares in early-stage disease but require ongoing maintenance.

Which is better for HS - CO2 laser or Nd:YAG?

They perform completely different therapeutic functions and are selected based on the disease stage. CO2 lasers are surgical, ablative devices used to vaporize the roofs of established sinus tracts (deroofing) or excise large blocks of fibrotic scarred tissue in Hurley Stage II and III patients. The Nd:YAG laser is a non-ablative device used to destroy hair follicles and reduce active inflammation in Hurley Stage I and early Stage II patients. The two modalities are often combined: CO2 laser to remove active tracts and Nd:YAG to treat the surrounding skin to prevent new lesions from forming.

Will HS laser treatment cause keloids or dark marks on dark skin?

Post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation (PIH) is a real risk in skin of color (Fitzpatrick IV–VI), but it is minimized by using a 1064-nm Nd:YAG laser with extended pulse durations (30–50 ms) and skin cooling, which bypass the epidermal melanin. Keloid risk is the more common patient worry, and the HS-specific data are reassuring: the largest retrospective review of CO2 laser excision for HS (Ezekwe et al., 2023, 129 patients) found no cases of keloid formation. Patients with a strong personal or family history of keloids should still be counseled individually, and any early hypertrophic border can be treated with intralesional corticosteroid injections. To explore more about keloidal scarring and its management, see our guide on keloid and hypertrophic scar treatments.

How does laser therapy fit into the overall HS treatment guidelines?

Major dermatological societies, including the American Academy of Dermatology (AAD) and the European Hidradenitis Suppurativa Foundation (EHSF), recommend laser therapies as part of a multi-modal approach. Non-ablative lasers (Nd:YAG) are recommended in mild-to-moderate disease (Hurley I/II) as a first-line physical therapy. CO2 laser surgery is recommended as a gold-standard option for localized, tunnel-forming disease (Hurley II/III). These energy-based options are typically integrated with medical management, including oral antibiotics, anti-inflammatory topicals, and systemic biologics.

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Sources

• Gawroński M, et al. Advances in Laser Therapy for Hidradenitis Suppurativa: A Systematic Assessment of Current Evidence. PMC, 2025. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12609277/
• Clark SR, et al. Effectiveness of Surgical Deroofing and Carbon Dioxide Laser in Moderate-to-Severe Hidradenitis Suppurativa Patients. Cureus, 2024. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38545424/ (PMC: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10966630/)
• Tierney E, et al. Randomized, Split-Body Clinical Trial of Long-Pulsed 1064-nm Nd:YAG Laser Therapy for Hidradenitis Suppurativa. Dermatol Surg, 2009;35(8):1188-1198. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21620334/
• Hamzavi IH, et al. Laser and light-based treatment options for hidradenitis suppurativa. JAAD, 2015;73(5 Suppl 1):S78-S81. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26470622/
• Mikkelsen PR, Dufour DN, et al. Recurrence Rate and Patient Satisfaction of CO2 Laser Evaporation Treatment for Hidradenitis Suppurativa. Dermatologic Surgery, 2015. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25654196/
• Ezekwe N, et al. Retrospective Study of Keloid Formation After CO2 Excision Therapy for Hidradenitis Suppurativa (129 patients; no keloids observed). JAAD, 2023;89(1):181-182. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36905960/
• Azim A, et al. Combined fractional carbon dioxide laser and long-pulsed 1064-nm Nd:YAG laser in treatment of hidradenitis suppurativa: a prospective randomized intra-individual controlled study. International Journal of Dermatology, 2018. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29907956/
• Fadel MA, Tawfik YM. Topical photodynamic therapy using methylene-blue niosomal gel in the treatment of hidradenitis suppurativa: a single-blind randomized comparative study. Clin Exp Dermatol, 2015;40(2):116-122.
• FDA Medical Device Databases. Product Codes: GFL (Laser, Surgical, Carbon Dioxide), OIL (Laser, Surgical, Nd:YAG), OEM (Laser, Powered). https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices
• ClinicalTrials.gov. A service of the U.S. National Institutes of Health. Registry analysis for hidradenitis suppurativa trials (NCT05580029, fractional CO2 fenestration). https://clinicaltrials.gov